Lycopene

Lycopene is a red carotenoid characteristic of ripe tomato and, to a lesser extent, of watermelon and pink grapefruit. Unlike most phytochemicals, its oral bioavailability increases significantly with cooking and the presence of fat: tomato sauce cooked with olive oil multiplies absorption compared with raw tomato. This page covers its mechanism, clinical evidence, doses studied, dietary sources and differences between commercial forms.

What is lycopene?

Lycopene is a carotenoid in the carotene subgroup (without terminal hydroxyl groups, unlike lutein or astaxanthin). It is characterised by its intense red colour and its linear chemical structure with eleven conjugated double bonds, which give it singular antioxidant properties.

The human body does not synthesise lycopene; it obtains it exclusively through the diet. The most concentrated dietary sources are ripe tomato and its derivatives (sauce, ketchup, crushed tomato, juice), followed by watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink papaya and guava. Unlike other carotenoids, lycopene is not a precursor of vitamin A.

Chemical structure and isomers

In nature, lycopene is found mostly in its all-E form (formerly called trans), a geometric configuration that gives the molecule an extended linear arrangement. After cooking, especially in the presence of fat, a fraction of the molecules is transformed into Z-isomers (formerly cis), which have greater oral bioavailability and greater antioxidant capacity measured in vitro. This is one of the few documented cases in nutrition in which thermal processing improves the absorption of a phytochemical.

Mechanism of action: fat-soluble antioxidant and cutaneous UV filter

Lycopene exerts several complementary biological functions. Its in vitro antioxidant profile is one of the most potent documented among common carotenoids, particularly against singlet oxygen.

Neutralisation of singlet oxygen

Singlet oxygen (¹O₂) is an especially damaging reactive species because its oxidising capacity does not require electron transfer, which makes it difficult for conventional antioxidant systems to neutralise. Lycopene stands out among carotenoids for its high efficiency in the physical inactivation of singlet oxygen, a physicochemical property that is directly measurable in in vitro assays.

Protection of the skin against UV radiation

Lycopene accumulates in the skin after sustained dietary consumption and contributes to cutaneous antioxidant defence against ultraviolet radiation. Human intervention studies have documented that regular consumption of cooked tomato or of lycopene extract increases the cutaneous concentration of the carotenoid and reduces markers of UV-induced erythema. This protection does not replace topical sunscreen; it complements endogenous defence.

Accumulation in the prostate

Pharmacokinetic studies have documented that lycopene accumulates selectively in prostate tissue at higher concentrations than in other tissues. This biological characteristic has motivated decades of research on the role of lycopene in prostate health, with clinical results that have evolved significantly as evidence has accumulated.

Benefits of lycopene according to clinical evidence

Informational note: The information in this section is for educational purposes and is based on published scientific research. It does not constitute medical advice or a therapeutic recommendation. The conditions mentioned require specialised medical diagnosis and follow-up. Always consult your doctor before starting any supplementation.

Oxidative stress and antioxidant capacity

This is the area with the most solid mechanistic basis. The efficacy of lycopene in the inactivation of singlet oxygen and other reactive species is documented in multiple in vitro assays. Human intervention studies have documented that regular consumption of tomato products raises plasma and cutaneous lycopene concentrations and reduces markers of lipid peroxidation.

Skin: photoprotection and elasticity

Clinical studies have evaluated the effect of lycopene supplementation or of regular consumption of tomato products on markers of cutaneous sun damage. The findings suggest a contribution to cutaneous antioxidant defence, with a reduction in markers of erythema and oxidative damage after UV exposure. The magnitude of the effect is modest and, as with other oral antioxidants, is interpreted as a complement to topical photoprotection, not as a substitute.

Prostate health (evidence that has evolved)

For years, observational studies and some small trials suggested a favourable association between dietary lycopene consumption (especially via cooked tomato products) and prostate health. However, meta-analyses of randomised clinical trials published in recent years have significantly qualified this view: a systematic review published in Nutrition and Cancer that synthesised multiple clinical trials found no significant effect of lycopene supplementation on prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in men with non-metastatic prostate cancer. Another systematic review and meta-analysis published in Complementary Therapies in Medicine evaluated the effect of lycopene (from different sources) on PSA with a broader analysis.

Current evidence suggests that the observational dietary association between tomato consumption and prostate health may be explained partly by the Mediterranean diet as a whole, not exclusively by isolated lycopene. Current clinical recommendations in prostate conditions do not include lycopene supplementation as a first-line intervention.

Cardiovascular health

Studies on the role of lycopene in cardiovascular markers (lipid profile, blood pressure, endothelial function) have produced heterogeneous results. Some studies have documented favourable effects on oxidised LDL and systolic blood pressure with sustained moderate doses (15-20 mg/day), while others have not reached statistical significance. The evidence is promising but not conclusive; larger-scale clinical trials with relevant clinical endpoints are needed.

Forms and routes of administration

Cooked tomato vs isolated supplement

The form best supported by evidence for incorporating lycopene into the diet is the consumption of tomato products cooked with fat (tomato sofrito, sauces with olive oil, ketchup, crushed tomato in culinary preparations). This is the form studied in most positive observational trials. Isolated lycopene supplements have been the form used in many intervention clinical trials, with more heterogeneous results than dietary observational ones.

Lycopene extract (supplement)

Commercial supplements typically use lycopene extract from tomato (concentrate), from the microalga Blakeslea trispora (biotechnological synthesis) or from chemical synthesis. Common commercial doses range between 5 and 30 mg per capsule, generally formulated with vegetable oil to optimise the oral bioavailability of the fat-soluble carotenoid.

When and how to take it

Because of its fat-soluble nature, lycopene is absorbed optimally with a meal containing fat (olive oil, nuts, avocado). Taking it on an empty stomach significantly reduces absorption. Study protocols usually use 1-2 daily intakes accompanying a main meal.

Dietary sources and bioabsorption

Lycopene has an uncommon nutritional characteristic: its oral bioavailability increases significantly with cooking and the presence of fat, unlike most nutrients that degrade or lose bioavailability with thermal processing.

Why cooking improves absorption

Two mechanisms explain the increase in bioabsorption after cooking:

• Breakdown of the plant matrix: the cell walls of tomato trap lycopene in the chromoplasts. Cooking breaks down these structures and releases the carotenoid for intestinal absorption.
• Conversion to Z-isomers: heat induces the partial transformation of all-E lycopene (linear, naturally present in the plant) into Z-isomers, more curved geometries with greater solubility in lipid micelles and, therefore, greater intestinal absorption.

The role of olive oil

The addition of olive oil (or another dietary fat) during the cooking of tomato acts as a lipid vehicle that solubilises the released lycopene, facilitating its incorporation into intestinal micelles and, with it, its absorption. The combination of cooked tomato + olive oil (Mediterranean sofrito, Bolognese sauce, gazpacho with its oil) is probably the food matrix with the best documented bioavailability for lycopene.

Other dietary sources

• Watermelon: contains bioavailable lycopene even without cooking, possibly because of the different plant matrix.
• Pink grapefruit, pink papaya, pink guava: provide smaller but relevant amounts in the context of a varied diet.
• Dried tomato, tomato concentrate: because of dehydration, they have significantly higher concentration per gram of product.

Doses studied in clinical trials

A generous serving of homemade tomato sauce (approximately 200-250 g) can provide between 15 and 30 mg of lycopene with high bioavailability, equivalent to the dose used in many study protocols.

Important note: the doses mentioned correspond to those used in research. They do not constitute an individual dose recommendation. Consult your doctor or pharmacist before starting any supplementation.

Safety, contraindications and interactions

Lycopene has a very favourable safety profile. Human dietary exposure has been continuous for millennia through the consumption of tomato and its derivatives.

Adverse effects

At usual supplementation doses (up to 30 mg/day) adverse effects are scarce and mild. With very high and prolonged consumption, lycopenodermia may appear, a slight orange-yellowish discolouration of the skin similar to carotenodermia, an innocuous effect that is reversible on reducing intake. Gastrointestinal discomfort is infrequent.

Contraindications and special populations

• Pregnancy and breastfeeding: lycopene is common in the diet. Specific supplementation beyond dietary intake should be discussed with the doctor.
• People with a diagnosed prostate condition: supplementation should form part of a care plan supervised by a urologist, not replace it. Recent clinical evidence does not support the use of isolated lycopene as a first-line intervention.
• Tomato allergy: people with a known allergy to tomato or to the Solanaceae family should avoid tomato-derived supplements and opt for extracts of biotechnological (Blakeslea trispora) or synthetic origin after medical consultation.

Drug interactions

No relevant drug interactions with lycopene have been documented at usual doses. People undergoing oncological treatment should consult their oncologist before any supplementation with antioxidant compounds, as a general good practice.

How to choose a lycopene supplement

The first criterion is to decide whether supplementation adds value over the diet: if your regular consumption includes tomato products cooked with olive oil (sofritos, sauces, gazpacho), your dietary intake may already be in the range of the doses studied in clinical trials. Supplementation makes sense mainly when that dietary consumption is low or when a standardised dose is sought for specific purposes.

• Source of lycopene: concentrated tomato extract (the most common and closest to the dietary matrix), Blakeslea trispora (biotechnological origin) or chemical synthesis. Products that explicitly state the origin offer traceability.
• Effective dose: 10-30 mg/day is the range used in research. Significantly lower doses add little additional value over a reasonable diet.
• Oily soft-capsule form: maximises the bioavailability of the fat-soluble carotenoid.
• Formulated synergies: products that combine lycopene with other carotenoid antioxidants (lutein, astaxanthin) or with compounds of the endogenous antioxidant system (vitamin E, glutathione, NAC) offer an integral approach.
• Pharmacy/supermarket brands vs specialised ones: brands sold in large supermarkets vary in concentration and traceability. Brands specialised in science-based supplementation usually provide certificates of analysis and batch traceability.
• Absence of unnecessary additives: avoid formulations with titanium dioxide, excess magnesium stearate or artificial colourings.

Lycopene in the Pleniage portfolio

In the formulation of PLENIAGE® ANTIOX PRO, lycopene (6 mg) is incorporated together with other components of the cellular antioxidant system: NAC 300 mg, glutathione 120 mg, CoQ10 100 mg, turmeric 100 mg, pomegranate 100 mg, astaxanthin 4 mg and lutein 4 mg. Each ingredient has individual scientific research; the specific combination of this formula has not been the subject of its own clinical trial. Lycopene provides its distinctive characteristic as an antioxidant that is particularly effective against singlet oxygen and as a protector of the cutaneous matrix, complementing the mechanisms of the other carotenoids in the formula (astaxanthin and lutein) which act in different lipid compartments.

This page is part of the Antioxidants and defences cluster. To go deeper into other related carotenoids, see the Astaxanthin page and the Lutein page.

Frequently asked questions about lycopene

What is lycopene and what is it used for?

Lycopene is a red carotenoid present mainly in ripe tomato, watermelon, pink grapefruit and papaya. It works as a fat-soluble antioxidant that is particularly effective against singlet oxygen. As a supplement it is used to support cellular antioxidant defence, especially in skin and lipid tissues. The clinical evidence is heterogeneous depending on the outcome studied.

Why does cooked tomato have more available lycopene than raw tomato?

For two complementary reasons: (1) cooking breaks down the cell walls of the tomato and releases the lycopene trapped in the plant chromoplasts; (2) heat induces the partial conversion of all-E lycopene (the natural linear form) into Z-isomers (more curved forms) that have greater oral bioavailability. The addition of olive oil during cooking further enhances absorption by serving as a lipid vehicle. Homemade tomato sauce with olive oil is probably the food matrix with the best documented bioavailability for lycopene.

Does lycopene prevent prostate cancer?

The evidence has evolved significantly. Observational studies and some small trials suggested a favourable association, but recent meta-analyses of randomised clinical trials have not confirmed a significant effect of isolated lycopene supplementation on markers such as PSA in men with non-metastatic prostate cancer. Current clinical recommendations in prostate conditions do not include lycopene supplementation as a first-line intervention. The observational dietary association may be explained partly by the Mediterranean diet as a whole.

Do tomato sauce and ketchup provide bioavailable lycopene?

Yes. Cooked tomato products, including sauce, ketchup, crushed tomato and tomato concentrate, are sources of lycopene with significantly higher bioavailability than raw tomato. Industrial ketchup, although it has added sugar and salt, contains bioavailable lycopene. Homemade tomato sauce with olive oil combines both enhancing factors (cooking + fat) and is the most nutritionally recommendable option.

Does the skin turn orange from taking lycopene?

With very high and prolonged consumption, lycopenodermia may appear, a slight orange-yellowish discolouration of the skin (similar to carotenodermia from excess carrots), an innocuous effect that is completely reversible on reducing intake. At usual supplementation doses (10-30 mg/day) or normal dietary consumption this effect is not observed.

Does lycopene have contraindications?

Its safety profile is very favourable. At usual doses (up to 30 mg/day) adverse effects are scarce. People with a tomato allergy should avoid tomato-origin extracts and consult their doctor for alternatives. People with a diagnosed prostate condition should consult their urologist, since recent evidence does not support the use of isolated lycopene as a first-line intervention. People undergoing oncological treatment should consult their oncologist before any supplementation with antioxidants.

Lycopene is one of the carotenoids with the greatest dietary exposure in the Mediterranean population and with a singular antioxidant mechanism —particularly effective against singlet oxygen— well characterised in vitro. Its most distinctive nutritional characteristic is that cooking and the presence of fat multiply its oral bioavailability, an uncommon property among phytochemicals. The clinical evidence for isolated supplementation has produced heterogeneous results, particularly qualified in recent years in the field of prostate health. If you are interested in going deeper into antioxidant strategies for cellular and cutaneous care, consult your doctor or pharmacist to assess whether lycopene supplementation is appropriate for your personal situation.

At PLENIAGE® we publish scientific content on evidence-based supplementation. You can explore the Antioxidants and defences cluster for more pages and related articles.

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References

The statements in the article are based on available scientific literature. The key verified references supporting the main claims about lycopene and its nutritional bioavailability are listed below.

• Fielding JM, Rowley KG, Cooper P, O'Dea K. Increases in plasma lycopene concentration after consumption of tomatoes cooked with olive oil. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2005;14(2):131-6. PMID: 15927929.
• Perdomo F, Cabrera Fránquiz F, Cabrera J, Serra-Majem L. Influence of cooking procedure on the bioavailability of lycopene in tomatoes. Nutr Hosp. 2012;27(5):1517-21. PMID: 23478703.
• Rinaldi de Alvarenga JF, Quifer-Rada P, Westrin V, et al. Home cooking and ingredient synergism improve lycopene isomer production in Sofrito. Food Res Int. 2017;99(Pt 2):851-861. PMID: 28847422.
• Rinaldi de Alvarenga JF, Quifer-Rada P, Francetto Juliano F, et al. Using Extra Virgin Olive Oil to Cook Vegetables Enhances Polyphenol and Carotenoid Extractability. Molecules. 2019;24(8):1555. PMID: 31010212.
• Sadeghian M, Asadi M, Rahmani S, Akhavan Zanjani M, Sadeghi O, Hosseini SA, Zare Javid A. Lycopene Does Not Affect Prostate-Specific Antigen in Men with Non-Metastatic Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutr Cancer. 2021;73(11-12):2459-2468. PMID: 33355018.
• Sharifi-Zahabi E, Hajizadeh-Sharafabad F, Abdollahzad H, Dehnad A, Shidfar F. The effect of lycopene supplement from different sources on prostate specific antigen (PSA): A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med. 2022;65:102801. PMID: 35031434.